Introduction The tumor microenvironment (TME) is a dynamic ecosystem composed of stromal cells, immune infiltrates, vasculature, extracellular matrix (ECM), and soluble signaling factors. It plays a critical role in tumor
Introduction Xenograft models, particularly patient-derived xenografts (PDX), provide unparalleled opportunities to study tumor biology in a living system. However, to fully exploit their potential, researchers increasingly integrate multi-omics profiling—genomics, transcriptomics,
Introduction Conventional subcutaneous xenograft models provide accessible and reproducible systems for studying tumor growth, but they lack the anatomical and physiological context of the original tumor site. To address this,
Introduction While xenograft models remain the gold standard for studying human tumor biology in vivo, the demand for more rapid, cost-effective, and human-relevant systems has accelerated the development of next-generation
Introduction Xenograft models are versatile platforms for investigating diverse cancer types, each presenting unique challenges in tumor biology, therapeutic targeting, and translational predictivity. Comparative analyses across tumor types highlight how
Introduction One of the most pressing challenges in oncology is the emergence of therapy resistance. Even when initial responses are robust, tumors frequently recur in more aggressive, treatment-refractory forms. Xenograft
Introduction Patient-Derived Xenografts (PDX) have redefined translational oncology by directly linking preclinical research to clinical decision-making. Beyond their role in drug discovery, PDX models are increasingly employed in co-clinical trials,
Introduction Xenograft models have transformed preclinical oncology by providing in vivo systems that retain many biological and molecular features of human tumors. Yet, long-term use of these models introduces significant
Introduction Traditional xenograft models provide valuable insights into tumor biology and therapeutic efficacy but are fundamentally limited in their ability to evaluate immunotherapies. Since immunodeficient murine hosts lack functional adaptive
Introduction Intratumoral heterogeneity is a defining feature of human cancers and a primary driver of therapeutic resistance. Conventional in vitro models fail to capture the dynamic interplay between co-existing subclones,